Ferroelectric device with multiple polarization states and method of making the same

ABSTRACT

A ferroelectric device includes a semiconductor channel region, a gate electrode, and a ferroelectric gate dielectric located between the channel region and the gate electrode, and including a plurality of ferroelectric gate dielectric portions having different structural defect densities.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part (CIP) application of U.S.application Ser. No. 16/227,889 filed on Dec. 20, 2018, the entirety ofwhich is incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD

The present disclosure relates generally to the field of semiconductordevices and specifically to a ferroelectric device containing aferroelectric layer with multiple polarization states and methods ofmaking the same.

BACKGROUND

A ferroelectric memory device is a memory device containing aferroelectric material to store information. The ferroelectric materialacts as the memory material of the memory device. The dipole moment ofthe ferroelectric material is programmed in two different orientations(e.g., “up” or “down” polarization positions based on atom positions,such as oxygen and/or metal atom positions, in the crystal lattice)depending on the polarity of the applied electric field to theferroelectric material to store information in the ferroelectricmaterial. The different orientations of the dipole moment of theferroelectric material can be detected by the electric field generatedby the dipole moment of the ferroelectric material. For example, theorientation of the dipole moment can be detected by measuring electricalcurrent passing through a semiconductor channel provided adjacent to theferroelectric material in a field effect transistor ferroelectric memorydevice.

SUMMARY

According an aspect of the present disclosure, a ferroelectric deviceincludes a semiconductor channel region, a gate electrode, and aferroelectric gate dielectric located between the channel region and thegate electrode, and including a plurality of ferroelectric gatedielectric portions having different structural defect densities.

According another aspect of the present disclosure a ferroelectricdevice, comprises a two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide semiconductorchannel region, a gate electrode, and a ferroelectric gate dielectriclocated adjacent to the channel region and including a plurality ofdifferent ferroelectric gate dielectric portions.

According another aspect of the present disclosure, a method of forminga ferroelectric device comprises forming a source region and a drainregion that are laterally spaced apart from each other by a channelregion, forming a ferroelectric gate dielectric over the channel region,forming different structural defects in the ferroelectric gatedielectric, wherein a plurality of ferroelectric gate dielectricportions have different structural defect densities, and forming a gateelectrode over each of the plurality of ferroelectric gate dielectricportions.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a metal-ferroelectric-semiconductorstructure.

FIG. 2A is a potential diagram for a first polarization state of themetal-ferroelectric-semiconductor structure of FIG. 1.

FIG. 2B is a potential diagram for a second polarization state of themetal-ferroelectric-semiconductor structure of FIG. 1.

FIG. 3 is a plot of the electrostatic potential at the interface betweenthe ferroelectric material portion and the metal portion as a functionof the ferroelectric thickness for the metal-ferroelectric-semiconductorstructure for two selected ferroelectric polarization densities.

FIG. 4 is a graph of conductivity as a function of the Fermi level for atwo-dimensional generic semiconductor material.

FIG. 5 is a graph of the density of states per eV per atom for pristinegraphene and for fluorinated graphene calculated within the tightbinding model.

FIG. 6 is a graph of the conductance as a function of Fermi level forpristine graphene and for fluorinated graphene calculated within thetight binding model.

FIG. 7 is a first exemplary structure according to a first embodiment ofthe present disclosure.

FIG. 8 is a second exemplary structure according to a second embodimentof the present disclosure.

FIG. 9 is a third exemplary structure according to a third embodiment ofthe present disclosure.

FIG. 10A is vertical cross-sectional view of a fourth exemplarystructure according to a fourth embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 10B is schematic see-through perspective view of the fourthexemplary structure of FIG. 10A.

FIG. 11 illustrates calculated density of states per eV per atom forhexagonal boron nitride according to the density function theory (DFT)and the hybrid functional.

FIG. 12 illustrates calculated density of states per eV per atom formolybdenum disulfide according to the density function theory (DFT) andthe hybrid functional.

FIG. 13A is a graph of electrical conductivity for hexagonal boronnitride as a function of polarization calculated within the tightbinding model.

FIG. 13B is a graph of electrical conductivity for fluorinated grapheneas a function of polarization calculated within the tight binding model.

FIG. 13C is a graph of electrical conductivity for molybdenum disulfideas a function of polarization calculated within the tight binding model.

FIG. 13D is a graph of electrical conductivity for germanane as afunction of polarization calculated within the tight binding model.

FIG. 14 is a schematic diagram of a ferroelectric memory deviceaccording to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 15A is a top-down view of a fifth exemplary structure afterformation of a shallow trench isolation structure according to a fifthembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 15B is a vertical cross-sectional view along the vertical planeB-B′ of FIG. 15A.

FIG. 16A is a top-down view of a fifth exemplary structure afterformation of a ferroelectric gate dielectric layer according to thefifth embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 16B is a vertical cross-sectional view along the vertical planeB-B′ of FIG. 16A.

FIG. 17A is a top-down view of a fifth exemplary structure after a firstmasked ion implantation process according to the fifth embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 17B is a vertical cross-sectional view along the vertical planeB-B′ of FIG. 17A.

FIG. 18A is a top-down view of a fifth exemplary structure after asecond masked ion implantation process according to the fifth embodimentof the present disclosure.

FIG. 18B is a vertical cross-sectional view along the vertical planeB-B′ of FIG. 18A.

FIG. 19A is a top-down view of a fifth exemplary structure after a thirdmasked ion implantation process according to the fifth embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 19B is a vertical cross-sectional view along the vertical planeB-B′ of FIG. 19A.

FIGS. 20A-20D are hysteresis curves of various ferroelectric gatedielectric portions of the ferroelectric gate dielectric of the fifthexemplary structure according to the fifth embodiment of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 21A is a top-down view of a fifth exemplary structure afterformation of a gate stack structure and extension active regionsaccording to the fifth embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 21B is a vertical cross-sectional view along the vertical planeB-B′ of FIG. 21A.

FIG. 22A is a top-down view of a fifth exemplary structure afterformation of a gate spacer and deep active regions according to thefifth embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 22B is a vertical cross-sectional view along the vertical planeB-B′ of FIG. 22A.

FIG. 23A is a top-down view of a fifth exemplary structure afterformation of a contact-level dielectric layer and contact via structuresaccording to the fifth embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 23B is a vertical cross-sectional view along the vertical planeB-B′ of FIG. 23A.

FIG. 24 is the channel conductance of the field effect transistor in thefifth exemplary structure as a function of a gate voltage according tothe fifth embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 25 is an interconnected network of ferroelectric memory devicesthat are connected in a synaptic connection configuration according tothe fifth embodiment of the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

As discussed above, the embodiments of the present disclosure aredirected to a ferroelectric device that contains a ferroelectric gatedielectric with multiple regions having different polarization statesdue to a different density of structural defects in each region. Themultiple regions of the ferroelectric gate dielectric are locatedbetween the same gate and the same channel, such that the multipledifferent polarization states provide multiple non-volatile conductancestates for the channel. If the device is a memory device, then theferroelectric gate dielectric is a memory layer having multiplepolarization states which provide a memory cell having more than one bitper cell (i.e., multilevel data storage). The multiple non-volatileconductance states may be deterministically controlled by varying themagnitude of the applied gate voltage (e.g., the magnitude of thevoltage pulse applied to the gate). If the device is a logic or a sensordevice, then ferroelectric gate dielectric functions as a gateinsulating layer of a transistor with multiple conductance states inadjacent regions of the same channel.

The drawings are not drawn to scale. Multiple instances of an elementmay be duplicated where a single instance of the element is illustrated,unless absence of duplication of elements is expressly described orclearly indicated otherwise. Same reference numerals refer to the sameelement or to a similar element. Elements having the same referencenumerals are presumed to have the same material composition unlessexpressly stated otherwise. Ordinals such as “first,” “second,” and“third” are employed merely to identify similar elements, and differentordinals may be employed across the specification and the claims of theinstant disclosure. The term “at least one” element refers to allpossibilities including the possibility of a single element and thepossibility of multiple elements. As used herein, a first elementlocated “on” a second element can be located on the exterior side of asurface of the second element or on the interior side of the secondelement. As used herein, a first element is located “directly on” asecond element if there exist a physical contact between a surface ofthe first element and a surface of the second element. As used herein, afirst element is “electrically connected to” a second element if thereexists a conductive path consisting of at least one conductive materialbetween the first element and the second element. As used herein, a“prototype” structure or an “in-process” structure refers to a transientstructure that is subsequently modified in the shape or composition ofat least one component therein.

As used herein, a “layer” refers to a material portion including aregion having a thickness. A layer may extend over the entirety of anunderlying or overlying structure, or may have an extent less than theextent of an underlying or overlying structure. Further, a layer may bea region of a homogeneous or inhomogeneous continuous structure that hasa thickness less than the thickness of the first continuous structure.For example, a layer may be located between any pair of horizontalplanes between, or at, a top surface and a bottom surface of the firstcontinuous structure. A layer may extend horizontally, vertically,and/or along a tapered surface. A substrate may be a layer, may includeone or more layers therein, or may have one or more layer thereupon,thereabove, and/or therebelow. As used herein, a “layer stack” refers toa stack of layers. As used herein, a “line” or a “line structure” refersto a layer that has a predominant direction of extension, i.e., having adirection along which the layer extends the most.

As used herein, a “field effect transistor” refers to any semiconductordevice having a semiconductor channel through which electrical currentflows with a current density modulated by an external electrical field.As used herein, an “active region” refers to a source region of a fieldeffect transistor or a drain region of a field effect transistor. A “topactive region” refers to an active region of a field effect transistorthat is located above another active region of the field effecttransistor. A “bottom active region” refers to an active region of afield effect transistor that is located below another active region ofthe field effect transistor.

As used herein, a “semiconducting material” refers to a material havingelectrical conductivity in the range from 1.0×10⁻⁶ S/m to 1.0×10⁵ S/m.As used herein, a “semiconductor material” refers to a material havingelectrical conductivity in the range from 1.0×10⁻⁶ S/m to 1.0 S/m in theabsence of electrical dopants therein, and is capable of producing adoped material having electrical conductivity in a range from 1.0 S/m to1.0×10⁵ S/m upon suitable doping with an electrical dopant. As usedherein, an “electrical dopant” refers to a p-type dopant that adds ahole to a valence band within a band structure, or an n-type dopant thatadds an electron to a conduction band within a band structure. As usedherein, a “conductive material” refers to a material having electricalconductivity greater than 1.0×10⁵ S/m. As used herein, an “insulatormaterial” or a “dielectric material” refers to a material havingelectrical conductivity less than 1.0×10⁻⁶ S/m. As used herein, a“heavily doped semiconductor material” refers to a semiconductormaterial that is doped with electrical dopant at a sufficiently highatomic concentration to become a conductive material, i.e., to haveelectrical conductivity greater than 1.0×10⁵ S/m. A “doped semiconductormaterial” may be a heavily doped semiconductor material, or may be asemiconductor material that includes electrical dopants (i.e., p-typedopants and/or n-type dopants) at a concentration that provideselectrical conductivity in the range from 1.0×10⁻⁶ S/m to 1.0×10⁵ S/m.An “intrinsic semiconductor material” refers to a semiconductor materialthat is not doped with electrical dopants. Thus, a semiconductormaterial may be semiconducting or conductive, and may be an intrinsicsemiconductor material or a doped semiconductor material. A dopedsemiconductor material can be semiconducting or conductive depending onthe atomic concentration of electrical dopants therein. As used herein,a “metallic material” refers to a conductive material including at leastone metallic element therein. All measurements for electricalconductivities are made at the standard condition. As used herein, a“ferroelectric material” refers to any material that exhibitsspontaneous electric polarization that can be reversed by theapplication of an external electric field.

Referring to FIG. 1, a metal-ferroelectric-semiconductor structureaccording to an embodiment of the present disclosure is illustrated. Themetal-ferroelectric-semiconductor structure includes metal portion thatcomprises as a gate electrode 50, a ferroelectric material portion thatcomprises a gate dielectric/ferroelectric memory element 20, and asemiconductor portion that comprises a semiconductor channel 40 in aferroelectric memory device to be described below.

Referring to FIGS. 2A and 2B, potential diagrams are illustrated forpolarization states of the metal-ferroelectric-semiconductor structureof FIG. 1. FIG. 2A illustrates a first polarization state of themetal-ferroelectric-semiconductor structure of FIG. 1 in which theferroelectric polarization vector P points in the positive polarizationdirection from the metal portion (such as a gate electrode 50) to thesemiconductor portion (such as a semiconductor channel 40). In thiscase, positive ferroelectric charges are present on the side of theferroelectric material portion (such as the gate dielectric 20) at theinterface with the semiconductor portion (such as the semiconductorchannel 40), and negative ferroelectric charges are present on the sideof the ferroelectric material portion (such as the gate dielectric 20)at the interface with the metal portion (such as the gate electrode 50).The ferroelectric charges induce screening charges within the metalportion and within the semiconductor portion. The screening charges aremobile electrical charges (such electrons or holes) that reduce theelectric fields caused by the ferroelectric charges within theferroelectric material portion. Positive screening charges accumulatewithin the metal portion (such as a gate electrode 50), and negativescreening charges accumulate within the semiconductor portion (such as asemiconductor channel 40).

FIG. 2B illustrates a second polarization state of themetal-ferroelectric-semiconductor structure of FIG. 1 in which theferroelectric polarization vector P points in the negative polarizationdirection from the semiconductor portion (such as a semiconductorchannel 40) to the metal portion (such as a gate electrode 50). In thiscase, negative ferroelectric charges are present on the side of theferroelectric material portion (such as the gate dielectric 20) at theinterface with the semiconductor portion (such as the semiconductorchannel 40), and positive ferroelectric charges are present on the sideof the ferroelectric material portion (such as the gate dielectric 20)at the interface with the metal portion (such as the gate electrode 50).The ferroelectric charges induce screening charges within the metalportion and within the semiconductor portion. Negative screening chargesaccumulate within the metal portion (such as a gate electrode 50), andpositive screening charges accumulate within the semiconductor portion(such as a semiconductor channel 40).

The screening potential at the interface between the ferroelectricmaterial portion and the metal portion can be controlled by switchingthe polarization direction of the ferroelectric material portion. Theelectrostatic potential V_(c)(x) as a function of a distance x from theinterface between the metal portion and the ferroelectric materialportion decays with a characteristic decay distance, which is referredto as the Thomas-Fermi screening length. If the x-axis is selected suchthat the x-coordinate is positive within the ferroelectric materialportion having a thickness of d and with the semiconductor materialportion, the electrostatic potential V_(c)(x) within the metal portionand the semiconductor material portion is governed by the equation,

${\frac{d^{2}{V_{c}(x)}}{{dx}^{2}} = \frac{V_{c}(x)}{\lambda^{2}}},$

in which λ is the Thomas-Fermi screening length within the respectivematerial portion.

In case the metal portion (such as the gate electrode 50) is muchthicker than the screening length λ_(l) for the metal portion, and ifthe semiconductor material portion (such as the semiconductor channel40) is thinner, the solution to the electrostatic potential V_(c)(x) forthe semiconductor material portion (i.e., x>d) is given by:

${{V_{c}(x)} = {{- \frac{{dP}\; \lambda_{l}^{\prime}}{ɛ_{0}\left( {{ɛ\left( {\lambda_{r} + \lambda_{l}^{\prime}} \right)} + d} \right)}}e^{{- {{x - d}}}/\lambda_{l}^{\prime}}}},$

in which d is the thickness of the ferroelectric material portion, P isthe ferroelectric polarization of the ferroelectric material portion, ε₀is the permittivity of vacuum, ε is the relative permittivity of theferroelectric material portion (i.e., the ratio of the permittivity ofthe ferroelectric material portion to the permittivity of vacuum), λ_(l)is the Thomas-Fermi screening length for the metal portion, λ_(r) is theThomas-Fermi screening length for the semiconductor material portion, lis the thickness of the semiconductor material portion, and λ′_(l) isgiven by:

$\lambda_{l}^{\prime} = {\frac{\lambda_{l}}{1 - e^{{- l}/\lambda_{l}}}.}$

According to an aspect of the present disclosure, the electrostaticpotential in the interfacial region of the semiconductor materialportion in proximity to the ferroelectric material portion can becontrolled by reversing the ferroelectric polarization within theferroelectric material portion. For the positive polarization directionillustrated in FIG. 2A, the screening charges bring the Fermi level intothe conduction band of the semiconductor material of the semiconductormaterial portion. For the negative polarization direction illustrated inFIG. 2B, the screening charges move the Fermi level towards the bandgap. Thus, the Fermi level moves between a position in the semiconductorband gap and a position in one of the bands (e.g., conduction or valenceband) by reversing the ferroelectric polarization direction, which leadsto a large difference between the resistive (e.g., resistivity orresistance) states of the device.

According to an aspect of the present disclosure, the semiconductormaterial portion includes a two-dimensional semiconductor materialproviding high conductivity within a two-dimensional plane that isparallel to the interface between the semiconductor material portion andthe ferroelectric material portion. As used herein, a two-dimensionalsemiconductor material refers to a semiconductor material having athickness of 1 to 5 monolayers, such as 2 to 3 monolayers of the atomsof the semiconductor material and/or which contains a two-dimensionalcharge carrier gas, such as a two-dimensional electron gas. In oneembodiment, the two-dimensional semiconductor material has a lateralextent along one direction that induces quantum mechanical modificationof the band structure. In one embodiment, a two-dimensionalsemiconductor material can have a lateral direction less than 10 nmalong one direction, which is herein referred to as the thicknessdirection of the two-dimensional semiconductor material.

According to an aspect of the present disclosure, the semiconductormaterial portion includes a two-dimensional semiconductor material layerhaving a thickness of 1 to 5 monolayer and having a band gap of at least1 eV, such as at least 1.15 eV, for example 1.15 eV to 5.65 eV.Alternatively, it may include a layer of a two-dimensional chargecarrier gas (such as a two-dimensional electron gas) and a band gap ofat least 1 eV, such as at least 1.15 eV, for example 1.15 eV to 5.65 eV.As used herein, a two-dimensional charge carrier gas refers to acollection of charge carriers in quantum confinement that providesenhanced conductivity along directions that are perpendicular to thedirection of the quantum confinement. For example, a two-dimensionalelectron gas is a two-dimensional charge carrier gas. In one embodiment,the semiconductor material portion includes a two-dimensionalsemiconductor material selected from hexagonal boron nitride having aband gap of 5.62 eV, fluorinated graphene having a band gap of 2.93 eV,molybdenum disulfide having a band gap of 2.24 eV, and germanane havinga band gap of 1.16 eV. The list of possible candidates oftwo-dimensional semiconductor materials is not limited withaforementioned materials.

FIG. 3 is a plot of the electrostatic potential V_(c)(0) at theinterface between the ferroelectric material portion and the metalportion as a function of the ferroelectric thickness d for themetal-ferroelectric-semiconductor structure of FIG. 1 calculated withinthe Thomas-Fermi model. According to this model the electrostaticpotential V_(c)(0) at the interface between the ferroelectric materialportion and the semiconductor portion is given by:

${V_{c}(0)} = {- {\frac{{dP}\; \lambda_{l}^{\prime}}{ɛ_{0}\left( {{ɛ\left( {\lambda_{r} + \lambda_{l}^{\prime}} \right)} + d} \right)}.}}$

A first curve 310 corresponds to the case in which the ferroelectricpolarization is 20 μC/cm², the relative permittivity of theferroelectric material portion is 90, the Thomas-Fermi screening lengthfor the metal portion is 0.2 nm, and the Thomas-Fermi screening lengthfor the semiconductor material portion is 0.2 nm. A second curve 320corresponds to the case in which the ferroelectric polarization is 40μC/cm², the relative permittivity of the ferroelectric material portionis 90, the Thomas-Fermi screening length for the metal portion is 0.2nm, and the Thomas-Fermi screening length for the semiconductor materialportion is 0.2 nm. Electrostatic potential greater than 1.0 V, and/orgreater than 1.5 V, and/or greater than 2.0 V can be generated at theinterface between the ferroelectric material portion and the metalportion through ferroelectric polarization effect.

FIG. 4 a graph of electrical conductivity as a function of the Fermilevel for a hypothetical two-dimensional semiconductor material (e.g.,for a monolayer of the semiconductor material). For the purpose of thecalculation in FIG. 4, a simple model of a two-dimensional semiconductormaterial based on the two-band tight binding Hamiltonian was employed.When such a two-dimensional semiconductor material is employed for thesemiconductor material portion of the device of FIG. 1, it is possibleto switch the state of the two-dimensional semiconductor materialbetween a conducting state and an insulating state by reversing thedirection of the ferroelectric polarization as illustrated in FIGS. 2Aand 2B. In other words, the shift in the Fermi level in the device ofFIG. 1 can be sufficient to provide two distinct resistive states, suchas a higher resistive state and a lower resistive state, which may be,for example, a conducting state and an insulating state.

According to an embodiment of the present disclosure, the functionaldependence of the electrical conductivity on the Fermi level illustratedin FIG. 4 can be physically manifested in any suitable two-dimensionalsemiconductor material, such as hexagonal boron nitride, fluorinatedgraphene, molybdenum disulfide, germanane, etc.

Table 1 below shows calculated values for the band gap and forconduction band on-site energy for the various materials that can beemployed in the ferroelectric memory device of the present disclosure.The band gap values were obtained from first principles electronicstructure calculations based on the hybrid functional and the tightbinding onsite energies were fitted to reproduce calculated bandstructures.

TABLE 1 Band gap and the conduction band onsite energy fortwo-dimensional semiconductor materials Two-dimensional Band gapConduction band semiconductor material (eV) onsite energy (eV) HexagonalBN 5.62 6.81 MoS₂ 2.24 5.12 Fluorinated graphene 2.93 5.465 Germanane1.16 4.58

A list of other suitable highly stable two-dimensional semiconductormaterials and their band gaps calculated within DFT taken from thefollowing database (https://cmrdb.fysik.dtu.dk/c2db/?x=29127&limit=200)is shown in Table 2. DFT is known to underestimates the band gap values,therefore the real band gaps are expected to be larger.

TABLE 2 Band gap for additional two-dimensional semiconductor materialsTwo-dimensional semiconductor material Band gap (eV) Au₂S₂ 1.218 GeS2.447 GeSe 2.219 GeTe 1.468 SnS 2.288 SnSe 2.152 AsBrS 1.387 AsBrSe1.228 AsCISe 1.374 AsISe 1.152 AsIS 1.338 AsBrTe 1.238 BrSSb 1.220 ISSb1.223 CISbTe 1.258 VBrCI 1.290 VBrI 1.189 Cu₂Br₂ 1.496 Rb₂F₂ 4.557 Cs₂F₂4.151 Al₂S₂ 2.142 Al₂Se₂ 2.138 Ga₂S₂ 2.180 In₂S₂ 1.604 MnCl₂ 2.025 MnBr₂1.775 ZnF₂ 4.425 ZnCl₂ 4.213 ZnI₂ 2.432 GeS₂ 1.344 GeO₂ 3.006 MnI₂ 1.223ZnBr₂ 3.272 SnS₂ 1.438 BaBr₂ 4.902 BaCl₂ 5.618 CaBr₂ 4.863 CaI₂ 3.537CdI₂ 2.136 GeI₂ 1.954 HgBr₂ 1.982 MgBrI₂ 4.588 MgI₂ 3.273 MnBr₂ 1.477MnCI₂ 1.797 NiCI₂ 1.217 PbBr₂ 2.004 SrBr₂ 4.929 SrI₂ 3.984 VBr₂ 1.252VCI₂ 1.354 VI₂ 1.206 ZnBr₂ 3.353 ZnCI₂ 4.453 ZnI₂ 1.749 CaBr₂ 4.128CaCI₂ 4.771 CaI₂ 2.946 MgCI₂ 4.762 SrCI₂ 4.944 Co₂CI₆ 1.130 Cr₂Br₆ 1.644Cr₂CI₆ 1.735 Mo₂Br₆ 1.561 Rh₂Br₆ 1.344 Rh₂CI₆ 1.590 Cr₂CF₂ 1.166 Y₂CF₂1.117 MoSeTe 1.136 MoSSe 1.453 WSSe 1.401 WSTe 1.142 BiBrS 1.250 BiClS1.497 BiClSe 1.290 BrSSb 1.427 BrSbTe 1.318 BrSbSe 1.462 AsBrS 1.417Pd₂S₄ 1.120 Pd₂Se₄ 1.313 Pd₂Te₄ 1.212 Pt₂S₄ 1.802 Pt₂Se₄ 1.441 Pt₂Te₄1.309 Re₄S₈ 1.276 Re₄Se₈ 1.110 GeO₂ 3.641 HfS₂ 1.221 MoSe₂ 1.321 NiO₂1.281 PbO₂ 1.346 PbS₂ 1.390 PdO₂ 1.379 PdS₂ 1.171 PtO₂ 1.674 PtS₂ 1.688PtSe₂ 1.167 SnO₂ 2.683 SnS₂ 1.587 WO₂ 1.340 WS₂ 1.534 WSe₂ 1.238 ZrS₂1.159 CrW₃S₈ 1.126 Mo₂W₂S₈ 1.532 Mo₃WS₈ 1.559 MoW₃S₈ 1.258 Al₂Br₂O₂4.142 Al₂Br₂S₂ 2.263 Al₂Br₂Se₂ 1.535 Al₂Cl₂S₂ 2.334 Al₂I₂S₂ 1.615Al₂I₂Se₂ 1.493 Cr₂Cl₂O₂ 1.190 Ga₂Br₂O₂ 2.515 Hf₂Br₂N₂ 2.064 Hf₂Cl₂N₂2.101 Sc₂Br₂S₂ 2.130 Sc₂Br₂Se₂ 1.510 Sc₂Cl₂Se₂ 1.409 Sc₂I₂S₂ 1.662Sc₂I₂Se₂ 1.393 Al₂S₂ 2.085 Al₂Se₂ 1.997 Al₂Te₂ 1.748 Ga₂O₂ 1.556 Ga₂S₂2.321 Ga₂Se₂ 1.765 In₂S₂ 1.675 Hf₂O₆ 3.470 Ti₂O₆ 2.461 Zr₂O₆ 3.586Mn₂Br₄ 1.818 Mn₂Cl₄ 2.033 Mn₂I₄ 1.349 Mn₂O₄ 1.287 Ti₂O₄ 2.855 V₂Br₄1.294 V₂Cl₄ 1.426 V₂I₄ 1.157 C₂H₂ 3.460 CH₂Si 4.000

Pristine graphene (i.e., graphene without defects or dopants) is anelectrical conductor which lacks a band gap, while a fluorinatedgraphene is a semiconductor having a band gap. FIG. 5 is a graph of thedensity of states per eV per carbon atom for pristine graphene and forfluorinated graphene. The tight binding model was employed for thepurpose of the calculation for the density of states per energy. Curve510 represents the density of states per eV per carbon atom for pristinegraphene. Curve 520 represents the density of states per eV per carbonatom for fluorinated graphene. Pristine graphene provides non-zerodensity of states at all energies other than zero, and thus, does notprovide a voltage at which pristine graphene becomes insulating.Fluorinated graphene provides an energy band at which the density ofstates is zero, and thus, provides a voltage range at which fluorinatedgraphene functions as an insulating material.

Referring to FIG. 6, the calculated conductance of pristine graphene andfluorinated graphene is plotted as a function of the Fermi energy. Curve610 represents the conductance of pristine graphene, and curve 620represents the conductance of fluorinated graphene. Fluorinated grapheneprovides an energy range in which conductance is negligible and thefluorinated graphene functions as an insulating material for Fermi levelof 0.5 eV or less. In contrast, pristine graphene does not provide anenergy range in which pristine graphene can function as an insulatingmaterial.

The atomic percentage of fluorine in the fluorinated graphene can be ina range from 0.1% to 60%, such as from 0.5% to 50%, including from 0.1%to 0%. Thus, fluorinated graphene can include but is not limited tographene fluoride having a roughly 1:1 ratio of carbon to fluorineatoms. The location and the width of the energy band at which thedensity of states is zero in fluorinated graphene changes with theatomic concentration of the fluorine atoms within fluorinated graphene.Thus, switching between an insulating state and a conducting statewithin the device of FIG. 1 is possible for fluorinated graphenesemiconductor material which functions as the semiconductor materialportion. Other semiconductor materials which have a sufficient band gap,such as molybdenum disulfide, hexagonal boron nitride, or germanane maybe employed in lieu of fluorinated graphene in the device of FIG. 1.

FIG. 7 illustrates a first exemplary structure 180 according to a firstembodiment of the present disclosure. The first ferroelectric memorydevice 180 includes a transistor 95 containing semiconductor channel 40.The semiconductor channel 40 can be configured to provide atwo-dimensional charge carrier gas layer, such as a 2DEG layer or asemiconductor material selected from fluorinated graphene, hexagonalboron nitride, molybdenum disulfide, germanane, or a similartwo-dimensional material with a sufficient band gap. The semiconductorchannel 40 may consist of only the two-dimensional charge carrier gaslayer or it may include additional semiconductor material in addition tothe two-dimensional charge carrier gas layer. The two-dimensional chargecarrier gas layer can be located within a two-dimensional Euclideanplane. In one embodiment, the semiconductor channel 40 can have athickness in a range from 0.3 nm to 10 nm, such as from 0.6 nm to 5 nm.The two-dimensional charge carrier gas layer functions as a channelwithin a transistor 95 (e.g., a ferroelectric memory cell) of the firstferroelectric memory device 180.

A ferroelectric memory element 21 is located adjacent to, such as on asurface of, the semiconductor channel 40, i.e., on a surface of thetwo-dimensional charge carrier gas layer. The ferroelectric memoryelement 21 functions as a gate dielectric 20 within the transistor 95 ofthe first ferroelectric memory device 180. The ferroelectric memoryelement 21 is in contact with a first surface of the semiconductorchannel 40. The ferroelectric memory element 21 includes, and/orconsists essentially of, at least one ferroelectric material such asbarium titanate (such as BaTiO₃; BT), colernanite (such asCa₂B₆O₁₁.5H₂O), bismuth titanate (such as Bi₁₂TiO₂₀, Bi₄Ti₃O₁₂ orBi₂Ti₂O₇), europium barium titanate, ferroelectric polymer, germaniumtelluride, langbeinite (such as M₂M′₂(SO₄)₃ in which M is a monovalentmetal and M′ is a divalent metal), lead scandium tantalate (such asPb(Sc_(x)Ta_(1-x))O₃), lead titanate (such as PbTiO₃; PT), leadzirconate titanate (such as Pb (Zr,Ti)O₃; PZT), lithium niobate (such asLiNbO₃; LN), (LaAlO₃)), polyvinylidene fluoride (CH₂CF₂)_(n), potassiumniobate (such as KNbO₃), potassium sodium tartrate (such asKNaC₄H₄O₆.4H₂O), potassium titanyl phosphate (such as KO₅PTi), sodiumbismuth titanate (such as Na_(0.5)Bi_(0.5)TiO₃ or Bi_(0.5)Na_(0.5)TiO₃)lithium tantalate (such as LiTaO₃ (LT)), lead lanthanum titanate (suchas (Pb,La)TiO₃ (PLT)), lead lanthanum zirconate titanate (such as(Pb,La)(Zr,Ti)O₃ (PLZT)), ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (such asNH₄H₂PO₄ (ADP)), or potassium dihydrogen phosphate (such as KH₂PO₄(KDP)). In one embodiment, the ferroelectric memory element 21comprises, and/or consists essentially of, a ferroelectric dielectricmaterial.

A front side conductive gate electrode 51 is located directly on theferroelectric memory element 21 on the opposite side of thesemiconductor channel 40. The front side conductive gate electrode 51functions as the gate electrode 50 of the transistor 95 of the firstferroelectric memory device 180. The conductive gate electrode 51 is incontact with the ferroelectric memory element 21. The conductive gateelectrode 51 can include, and/or consist essentially of, a metallicmaterial such as an elemental metal (Ti, Ta, or W), an intermetallicalloy of at least two elemental metals, a metal-semiconductor compound(such as a metal silicide), or a conductive metallic alloy of at leastone elemental metal (such as Ti, Ta, W) and a nonmetallic element (suchas nitrogen and/or oxygen, such as TiN or WN).

A source contact 42 contacts a first portion of the semiconductorchannel 40 and a drain contact 44 contacts a second portion of thesemiconductor channel. The ferroelectric memory element 21 is locatedbetween the source contact 42 and the drain contact 44. The sourcecontact 42 and the drain contact 44 can comprise, and/or consistessentially of, a respective metallic contact material. The metalliccontact material may be a metal-semiconductor compound, a conductivemetallic nitride, an elemental metal, or an intermetallic alloymaterial. In one embodiment, a metallic material that can be used forthe conductive gate electrode 51 can also be used for the source contact42 and the drain contact 44.

In one embodiment, the two-dimensional charge carrier gas layer islocated within 10 nm from a two-dimensional Euclidian plane thatincludes an interface between the semiconductor channel 40 and theferroelectric memory element 21.

The transistor 95 of the first exemplary structure 180 can be formed,for example, by forming the semiconductor channel 40 over a substrate10, by forming the ferroelectric memory element 21 directly on the firstsurface of the semiconductor channel 40, by forming the conductive gateelectrode 51 on the ferroelectric memory element 21, by forming thesource contact 42 on the first portion of the semiconductor channel 40,and by forming the drain contact 44 on the second portion of thesemiconductor channel 40. The substrate 10 has a planar top surface 11that contacts a bottom surface of the semiconductor channel 40. In theembodiment shown in FIG. 7, the direction between the semiconductorchannel 40 and the conductive gate electrode 51 is normal to the planartop surface 11 of the substrate 10. Alternatively, in the embodimentshown in FIG. 8, the transistor 95 may be rotated 90 degrees withrespect to the transistor 95 shown in FIG. 7 such that the directionbetween the semiconductor channel 40 and the conductive gate electrode51 is parallel to the plane of the planar top surface 11 of thesubstrate 10. The substrate 10 may comprise any suitable supportingsubstrate, such as a semiconductor wafer, an insulating substrate or aconductive substrate containing an insulating layer over its planar topsurface 11.

During programming, a variable gate bias voltage V_(g) can be applied tothe conductive gate electrode 51 relative to the semiconductor channel40 to program the polarization of the ferroelectric memory element 21.During sensing, a source-drain bias voltage is applied between (e.g.,across) the source contact 42 and the drain contact 44 and by applying agate sensing bias voltage to the conductive gate electrode 51. A sensecircuitry 584 can measure the source-drain current while applying thesource-drain bias voltage between (e.g., across) the source contact 42and the drain contact 44.

Referring to FIG. 8, a second exemplary structure 180 according to asecond embodiment of the present disclosure can be derived from thefirst exemplary structure 180 of FIG. 7 by providing a backsideferroelectric memory element 22 in contact with a second surface of thesemiconductor channel 40. The backside ferroelectric memory element 22is an additional ferroelectric material portion that functions as anadditional gate dielectric 20. The backside ferroelectric memory element22 is located on a second surface of the semiconductor channel 40, whichis parallel to the first surface of the semiconductor channel 40 and islocated on the opposite side of the first surface of the semiconductorchannel 40. The backside ferroelectric memory element 22 can have thesame thickness as the ferroelectric memory element 21, and can includeany ferroelectric material that can be employed for the ferroelectricmemory element 21.

A conductive backside gate electrode 52 is provided on the backsideferroelectric memory element 22. The conductive backside gate electrode52 can be in contact with the backside ferroelectric memory element 22.The conductive backside gate electrode 52 can include any material thatcan be employed for the conductive gate electrode 51. An electricallyconductive path connecting the conductive backside gate electrode andthe conductive gate electrode, thereby electrically shorting theconductive backside gate electrode 52 to the conductive gate electrode51.

In one embodiment, the polarization of the ferroelectric memory element21 and the polarization of the backside ferroelectric memory element 22can point in opposite directions. Thus, the polarization of theferroelectric memory element 21 and the polarization of the backsideferroelectric memory element 22 can point toward the semiconductorchannel 40 in a first ferroelectric memory state, and the polarizationof the ferroelectric memory element 21 and the polarization of thebackside ferroelectric memory element 22 can point away from thesemiconductor channel 40 in a second ferroelectric memory state. Thus,positive ferroelectric charges are present in the ferroelectric memoryelement 21 and the backside ferroelectric memory element 22 near theinterfaces with the semiconductor channel 40 in the first ferroelectricmemory state, which induces negative screening charges (mobileelectrons) in the two-dimensional charge carrier gas layer near theinterfaces with the ferroelectric memory element 21 and the backsideferroelectric memory element 22. Alternatively, if a semiconductinglayer is used instead of a two-dimensional charge carrier gas layer, theinduced charges will act to shift the Fermi energy and change theconductive state of the semiconducting layer. Likewise, negativeferroelectric charges are present in the ferroelectric memory element 21and the backside ferroelectric memory element 22 near the interfaceswith the semiconductor channel 40 in the second ferroelectric memorystate, which induces positive screening charges (holes, i.e., absence ofelections) in the two-dimensional charge carrier gas layer near theinterfaces with the ferroelectric memory element 21 and the backsideferroelectric memory element 22. The second exemplary structure 180 canbe operated by applying the same voltage (e.g., the same polarityvoltage pulses) to the conductive backside gate electrode 52 as thevoltage applied to the front side conductive gate electrode 51.

The thickness of the semiconductor channel 40 in the second exemplarystructure 180 can be the same as the thickness of the semiconductorchannel in the first exemplary structure 180. Alternatively, thethickness of the semiconductor channel 40 in the second exemplarystructure 180 can be in a range from 1.0 times the thickness of thesemiconductor channel 40 in the first exemplary structure 180 to 2.0times the thickness of the semiconductor channel in the first exemplarystructure 180. The increased thickness window for the semiconductorchannel 40 in the second exemplary structure 180 is due to the dual gateconfiguration in which the screening charges are induced from twodifferent ferroelectric polarizations in an additive manner.

The transistor 95 of the second exemplary structure 180 can be formed bymodifying the method for forming the transistor 95 of the firstexemplary structure 180. In addition to the processing steps employed toform the various components of the first exemplary structure 180, thebackside ferroelectric memory element 22 can be formed on the secondsurface of the semiconductor channel 40, and the conductive backsidegate electrode 52 can be formed on the backside ferroelectric memoryelement 22.

In one embodiment, the transistor 95 of the second exemplary structure180 may be supported by the substrate 10 having the planar top surface11 that is perpendicular to the plane of the interface between thesemiconductor channel 40 and the ferroelectric memory element 21 and isparallel to the direction of the electrical current in the semiconductorchannel 40 during a sensing operation, i.e., the direction between thesource contact 42 and the drain contact 44.

Alternatively, the transistor 95 shown in FIG. 8 may be rotated by 90degrees to have configuration similar to that shown in FIG. 7. In thisalternative configuration, the conductive backside gate electrode 52 isformed over the substrate 10, the backside ferroelectric memory element22 is formed over the conductive backside gate electrode 52, thesemiconductor channel 40 is formed over the backside ferroelectricmemory element 22, the ferroelectric memory element 21, the sourcecontact 42 and the drain contact 44 are formed over the semiconductorchannel 40, and the front side conductive gate electrode 51 is formedover the ferroelectric memory element 21.

Referring to FIG. 9, a transistor 95 of a third exemplary structureaccording to an embodiment of the present disclosure is illustrated,which can be derived from the first exemplary structure 180 by forming abackside contact electrode 53 directly on the second surface of thesemiconductor channel 40. A two-dimensional semiconductor material layer40G within the semiconductor channel 40 is expressly illustrated. Adescribed above, the two-dimensional semiconductor material layer 40Gmay comprise the entire semiconductor channel 40 or just a portion ofthe semiconductor channel 40. The two-dimensional semiconductor materiallayer 40G can have a band gap of at least 1.1 eV, can include athickness of 1 to 5 monolayers of the atoms of the semiconductormaterial and/or can include a two-dimensional charge carrier gas layer.The second surface of the semiconductor channel 40 is located on theopposite side of the first surface of the semiconductor channel 40.Thus, the backside contact electrode 53 can be in contact with thesecond surface of the semiconductor channel 40. The backside contactelectrode 53 can apply a backside bias voltage to the semiconductorchannel 40 during programming of the ferroelectric polarization of theferroelectric memory element 21. Optionally, a front gate contact 81and/or a back gate contact 83 may be formed on the conductive gateelectrode 51 and on the backside contact electrode 53, respectively, tofacilitate application of bias voltages that are employed duringoperation of the transistor 95 of the third exemplary structure. In analternative embodiment, layers 51 and/or 53 illustrated in FIG. 9 maycomprise gate insulating layers and contacts 81 and/or 83 may comprisethe front side conductive gate electrode and the backside contactelectrode (e.g., a back gate), respectively.

Referring to FIGS. 10A and 10B, a transistor 95 of a fourth exemplarystructure according to a fourth embodiment of the present disclosure isillustrated. In the transistor 95 of the fourth exemplary structure, theferroelectric memory element 20 and/or the gate electrode 50 can have atubular configuration which surrounds the semiconductor channel 40. Inother words, the gate electrode 50 may be a wrap gate electrode 54 whichwraps around the ferroelectric memory element 20 which may be a wraparound ferroelectric memory element 23. The wrap around ferroelectricmemory element 23 wraps around (i.e., surrounds) the semiconductorchannel 40.

In this embodiment, the semiconductor channel 40 may be a verticalpillar or a vertical shell which surrounds a vertical pillar whichextends lengthwise perpendicular to the planar top surface 11 of thesubstrate 10, as shown in FIG. 10B. The wrap around ferroelectric memoryelement 23 may be an inner shell which wraps around (i.e., surrounds)the semiconductor channel 40. The wrap gate electrode 54 wraps aroundthe middle portion of the wrap around ferroelectric memory element 23.The source and drain contacts (42, 44) contact opposite ends of thesemiconductor channel 40 on opposite sides of the wrap gate electrode54. The source and drain contacts (42, 44) may also wrap around thesemiconductor channel 40 or they may contact only a portion of the outerperimeter of the semiconductor channel 40.

Generally, the various ferroelectric memory devices 180 of theembodiments of the present disclosure can be operated by programming apolarization direction of the ferroelectric memory element 21 byapplying a positive bias voltage or a negative bias voltage to theconductive gate electrode 51 with respective to the semiconductorchannel 40, and by sensing the polarization direction of theferroelectric memory element 21 by measuring a magnitude of electricalcurrent between the source contact 42 and the drain contact 44 whileapplying a read voltage (i.e., a measurement bias voltage) between thesource contact 42 and the drain contact 44. If a backside ferroelectricmemory element 22 is included, then the ferroelectric polarizationdirection of the backside ferroelectric memory element 22 is opposite ofthe ferroelectric polarization direction of the ferroelectric memoryelement 21. The thickness and/or the material composition of thebackside ferroelectric memory element 22 may be the same as, or may bedifferent from, the thickness and/or the material composition of theferroelectric memory element 21. In other words, the polarization of theferroelectric memory element 21 and the backside ferroelectric memoryelement 22 are antiparallel to each other, and are flippedsimultaneously during programming

If a conductive backside gate electrode 52 is included, then the voltageapplied to the conductive backside gate electrode 52 can be the same asthe voltage applied to the front side conductive gate electrode 51. Aread voltage can be applied to the conductive gate electrode 51 whilesensing the polarization direction of the ferroelectric memory element21 and optionally sensing the polarization direction of the backsideferroelectric memory element 22.

The device of the embodiments of the present disclosure providesadvantages over ferroelectric-pristine graphene memory elements based ontunneling electroresistance (TER) which have poor polarization retentionand which require thick ferroelectric barriers to stabilizepolarization. However the thick barriers lead to low tunneling currentsand therefore strongly reduce the signal (e.g., reading current) inTER-based devices. In contrast, reading current does not flow throughthe ferroelectric material in devices of the embodiments of the presentdisclosure. Thus, a much thicker ferroelectric layer can be used in thedevice of the embodiments of the present disclosure compared to priorart TER-based devices without reducing the reading current, and theproblem of polarization retention is reduced or overcome in the devicesof the embodiments of the present disclosure.

Without wishing to be bound by a particular theory and in order todemonstrate advantages of the device of the embodiments of the presentdisclosure, the inventors calculated a ferroelectric polarizationcontrolled on-off ratio on the semiconductor's band gap in finite sizenanostructures at room temperature. The inventors developed quantummechanical calculations of electrical conductivity based on theballistic electron transport through finite size semiconductor attachedto ferroelectric material and two metallic contacts. The inventors'calculations are based on the Green Function formalism within a two-bandtight binding Hamiltonian model. In contrast, first principleselectronic structure calculations were used to obtain the density ofstates and band gaps of two-dimensional semiconductor materials.

Specifically, the structure of FIG. 1 was modeled with a rectangulardevice size of 10 nm×5 nm (i.e., the area of each interface betweenadjacent layers). The thickness d of the ferroelectric material portionwas 5 nm, and the distance between the ferroelectric material portionand each metallic contact was 1 nm. The electrostatic potential in thesemiconductor material portion underneath the ferroelectric materialportion was controlled by reversing ferroelectric polarization.

The results of the inventors' simulations are illustrated in FIGS. 11,12, and 13A-13D. The accuracy of the conductivity simulations waslimited by the numerical precision. The values of conductivity below10⁻² (Ohm·m)⁻¹ are outside the range of reliable numerical accuracy, andtherefore, the calculations were limited to the range of ferroelectricpolarization leading to conductivity values of at least 10⁻² (Ohm·m)⁻¹.

Referring to FIG. 11, calculated density of states per eV per atom isshown for hexagonal boron nitride. This calculation was based on thedensity function theory (DFT) and the hybrid functional.

Referring to FIG. 12, calculated density of states per eV per atom isshown for molybdenum disulfide. This calculation was based on thedensity function theory (DFT) and the hybrid functional.

FIGS. 13A-13D show graphs for the calculated electrical conductivity (inunits of 10⁷/Ohm·m) for the transistor 95 of the ferroelectric memorydevice of the embodiments of the present disclosure at room temperature(20 degrees Celsius) as a function of ferroelectric polarization. FIG.13A shows the calculated electrical conductivity for the case in whichthe ferroelectric memory element consists of hexagonal boron nitride.FIG. 13B shows the calculated electrical conductivity for the case inwhich the ferroelectric memory element consists of fluorinated graphene.FIG. 13C shows the calculated electrical conductivity for the case inwhich the ferroelectric memory element consists of molybdenumdisilicide. FIG. 13D shows the calculated electrical conductivity forthe case in which the ferroelectric memory element consists ofgermanane.

FIGS. 13A-13D show that conductivities of all semiconductor channels ofthe embodiments of the present disclosure exponentially increases (ordecreases) with ferroelectric polarization for positive (or negative)direction of ferroelectric polarization. This allows fitting thecalculated conductivity σ(P) to a fitting function including theferroelectric polarization P as a variable. Further, the on-off ratioON/OFF (i.e., the ratio of the conductivity in the on state to theconductivity in the off state) can be fitted to another fitting functionhaving another variable P_(max), which is the maximum value offerroelectric polarization required to push the Fermi level of atwo-dimensional semiconductor into the conduction band. The functionalforms for σ(P) and ON/OFF are given by:

σ(P)=σ₀ e ^(aP), and

ON/OFF=e ^(2aP) ^(max) ,

in which where σ₀=σ(P=0) is the conductivity of a semiconductor channelfor the paraelectric case. Table 3 tabulates best fit values for thefitting parameters for σ(P) and ON/OFF.

TABLE 3 fitting parameters for ferroelectric materials Optimum value fora P_(max) Ferroelectric material (in cm²/μC) (in μC/cm²) Hexagonal BN0.61 75 MoSi₂ 0.49 30 Fluorinated graphene 0.50 40 germanane 0.44 10

While defect states may limit the value for the ON/OFF ratio inpractice, the various two-dimensional semiconductor materials providegenerally high ON/OFF ratio. The simulations show that higher ON/OFFratios are possible with wider band gaps two-dimensional semiconductormaterials and a thicker ferroelectric material can be used inconjunction with such two-dimensional semiconductor materials. A higheroperating voltage is expected with an increase in the thickness of theferroelectric material in the ferroelectric memory device 180 of theembodiments of the present disclosure.

According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a ferroelectric memoryarray can include an array of memory cells (e.g., transistors) 95 of theembodiments of the present disclosure. Referring to FIG. 14, a schematicdiagram is shown for a ferroelectric memory array including thetransistors 95 in an array configuration. The ferroelectric memory arraycan be configured as a random access memory device 501. As used herein,a “random access memory device” refers to a memory device includingmemory cells that allow random access, i.e., access to any selectedmemory cell upon a command for reading the contents of the selectedmemory cell.

The random access memory device 501 of the present disclosure includes amemory array region 550 containing an array of the respectiveferroelectric memory cells 180 located at the intersections of wordlines (which may comprise first electrically conductive lines 30 asillustrated or as second electrically conductive lines 90 in analternate configuration) and bit lines (which may comprise secondelectrically conductive lines 90 as illustrated or as first electricallyconductive lines 30 in an alternate configuration). For example, theword lines 30 may be electrically connected to and/or may comprise thegate electrodes 50 of the transistors 95 in the array, while the bitlines 90 may be electrically connected to and/or may comprise the sourceor drain contacts (42, 44) of the transistors 95 in the array.

The random access memory device 501 may also contain a row decoder 560connected to the word lines, a sense circuitry 570 (e.g., a senseamplifier and other bit line control circuitry) connected to the bitlines, a column decoder 580 connected to the bit lines, and a databuffer 590 connected to the sense circuitry. Multiple instances of theferroelectric memory cells (e.g., ferroelectric memory transistors) 95are provided in an array configuration that forms the random accessmemory device 501. As such, each of the ferroelectric memory cells 95can be a two-terminal device including a respective first electrode anda respective second electrode. It should be noted that the location andinterconnection of elements are schematic and the elements may bearranged in a different configuration. Further, a ferroelectric memorycell 95 may be manufactured as a discrete device, i.e., a singleisolated device.

The embodiments of the present disclosure provide a nonvolatile memoryelement based on ferroelectric-controlled electrical conductivity of atwo-dimensional semiconductor material, or a two-dimensional chargecarrier gas layer, such as a 2DEG layer 40G. Information can be writtenand stored by applying electric pulses that reverse the ferroelectricpolarization and thereby induce surface charges in the semiconductor orin the two-dimensional charge carrier gas layer. Information can be readby measuring the resistance of a semiconductor channel including thetwo-dimensional charge carrier gas layer.

The device of the embodiments of the present disclosure providessignificant increase in the difference in electrical resistance oftwo-dimensional semiconductor material layer compared to previouslyknown three-terminal ferroelectric-graphene structures by replacinggapless pristine graphene (i.e., a band gap of zero) withtwo-dimensional semiconductor material layer, which can have a band gapof at least 1.1 eV. The device of the embodiments of the presentdisclosure can strongly improve the stability of ferroelectricpolarization compared to previously known two-terminal perpendiculartunnel junction devices because the thickness of a ferroelectricmaterial portion can be increased without signal loss. The device of theembodiments present disclosure is a non-volatile memory device enablingnon-volatile storage of information, which is not provided byhigh-electron-mobility transistors (HEMTs) or heterojunction fieldeffect transistors (HFETs) known in the art. The device of theembodiments of the present disclosure enables low power sensing becausethe in-plane geometry allows low-current operation during the sensingstep.

Referring to FIGS. 15A and 15B, a fifth exemplary structure according toa fifth embodiment of the present disclosure is illustrated, whichincludes a semiconductor substrate including a semiconductor materiallayer 710. The semiconductor substrate may be a bulk semiconductorsubstrate in which the semiconductor material layer 710 extends from afront surface to a backside surface, or may be asemiconductor-on-insulator (SOI) substrate including a buried insulatorlayer (not shown) underlying the semiconductor material layer 710 and ahandle substrate (not shown) that underlies the buried insulating layer.For example, the semiconductor substrate may comprise a commerciallyavailable single crystalline bulk silicon wafer or a commerciallyavailable semiconductor-on-insulator substrate.

The semiconductor material layer 710 can include a single crystallinesemiconductor material or a polycrystalline semiconductor material. Thesemiconductor material layer 710 may comprise a doped well in a siliconwafer, a top portion of the silicon wafer, or a semiconductor filmdeposited over any suitable substrate. In one embodiment, the entiretyof the semiconductor material layer 710 can include a single crystallinesemiconductor material such as single crystalline silicon. Thesemiconductor material of the semiconductor material layer 710 have adoping of a first conductivity type, which may be p-type or n-type. Theatomic concentration of dopants of the first conductivity type in thesemiconductor material layer 710 may be in a range from 1.0×10¹⁴/cm³ to3.0×10¹⁷/cm³, although lesser and greater atomic concentrations may alsobe employed. In one embodiment, the semiconductor material layer 710 canconsist essentially of silicon and dopants of the first conductivitytype.

In an alternative embodiment, the semiconductor material layer 710 maycomprise the two-dimensional semiconductor material described above withrespect to the first through fourth embodiments. For example, thesemiconductor material layer may comprise a metal dichalcogenide (e.g.,MoS₂) material having a thickness of 1 to 5 monolayers (e.g., 0.6 nm to4 nm). In another alternative embodiment, an organic semiconductormaterial layer or a wide band gap metal oxide semiconductor materiallayer (e.g., zinc oxide or titanium dioxide) may be used instead.

Shallow trench isolation structures 720 can be formed in an upperportion of the semiconductor material layer 710. For example, shallowtrenches can be formed through the top surface of the semiconductormaterial layer 710 by applying and patterning a photoresist layer overthe top surface of the semiconductor material layer 710, and bytransferring the pattern in the photoresist layer into the upper portionof the semiconductor material layer 710 employing an anisotropic etchprocess. The photoresist layer can be subsequently removed, for example,by ashing. A dielectric material can be deposited in the shallowtrenches, and excess portions of the dielectric can be removed fromabove the horizontal plane including the top surface of thesemiconductor material layer 710 employing a planarization process suchas a chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) process. The remaining portionsof the dielectric material that fill the shallow trenches comprise theshallow trench isolation structures 720. The shallow trench isolationstructures 720 can laterally surround device regions 730, one of whichis illustrated in FIGS. 15A and 15B. In one embodiment, each deviceregion can be laterally surrounded by a shallow trench isolationstructure 720. In one embodiment, at least one of the device regions canhave a rectangular horizontal cross-sectional shape having a pair offirst edges that laterally extend along a first horizontal directionhd1′ and a pair of second edges that laterally extend along a secondhorizontal direction hd2′. While the present disclosure is describedemploying a single device region, it is understood that multiple deviceregions laterally surrounded by a respective shallow trench isolationstructure 720 can be formed in the first exemplary structure.

The area of each device region 730 can be defined by the bottom edge ofthe inner periphery of a shallow trench isolation structure 720 thatlaterally surrounds a portion of the semiconductor material layer 710.In one embodiment, a device region 730 can have a rectangular horizontalcross-sectional shape, and can have a pair of first straight edges thatare parallel to the first horizontal direction hd1′, and a pair ofsecond straight edges that are parallel to the second horizontaldirection hd2′.

Referring to FIGS. 16A and 16B, a ferroelectric material can bedeposited on the top surface of the semiconductor material layer 710 andover the shallow trench isolation structure 720 to form a ferroelectricgate dielectric layer 750L. The ferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750Lcan include any ferroelectric material that can be employed for theferroelectric memory element 21 described above. The ferroelectric gatedielectric layer 750L includes, and/or consists essentially of, at leastone ferroelectric material such as hafnium oxide (such as hafnium oxidecontaining at least one dopant selected from Al, Zr, and Si and having aferroelectric non-centrosymmetric orthorhombic phase), zirconium oxide,hafnium-zirconium oxide, barium titanate (such as BaTiO₃; BT),colemanite (such as Ca₂B₆O₁₁.5H₂O), bismuth titanate (such as BiuTiO₂₀,Bi₄Ti₃O₁₂ or Bi₂Ti₂O₇), europium barium titanate, ferroelectric polymer,germanium telluride, langbeinite (such as M₂M′₂(SO₄)₃ in which M is amonovalent metal and M′ is a divalent metal), lead scandium tantalate(such as Pb(Sc_(x)Ta_(1-x))O₃), lead titanate (such as PbTiO₃; PT), leadzirconate titanate (such as Pb (Zr,Ti)O₃; PZT), lithium niobate (such asLiNbO₃; LN), (LaAlO₃)), polyvinylidene fluoride (CH₂CF₂)_(n), potassiumniobate (such as KNbO₃), potassium sodium tartrate (such asKNaC₄H₄O₆.4H₂O), potassium titanyl phosphate (such as KO₅PTi), sodiumbismuth titanate (such as Na_(0.5)Bi_(0.5)TiO₃ or Bi_(0.5)Na_(0.5)TiO₃),lithium tantalate (such as LiTaO₃ (LT)), lead lanthanum titanate (suchas (Pb,La)TiO₃ (PLT)), lead lanthanum zirconate titanate (such as(Pb,La)(Zr,Ti)O₃ (PLZT)), ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (such asNH₄H₂PO₄ (ADP)), or potassium dihydrogen phosphate (such as KH₂PO₄(KDP)). In one embodiment, the gate dielectric layer 750L comprises,and/or consists essentially of, a ferroelectric dielectric material. Theferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L can be deposited by a conformaldeposition process or a non-conformal deposition process. For example,the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L can be formed by a chemicalvapor deposition (CVD) process or an atomic layer deposition (ALD)process. The thickness of the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750Lcan be in a range from 4 nm to 30 nm, such as from 6 nm to 20 nm,although lesser and greater thicknesses can also be employed.

The ferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L may include a plurality ofdifferent regions, such as two or more regions, which extend along thefirst horizontal direction hd1′. Referring to FIGS. 17A and 17B, in anillustrative example, the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750Lincludes four different regions (e.g., segments): a first segment 75A, asecond segment 75B, a third segment 75C, and a fourth segment 75D.However, there may be two segments, three segments or more than foursegments, such as five to ten segments for example. Each of the firstsegment 75A, the second segment 75B, the third segment 75C, and thefourth segment 75D can have a respective rectangular area. The sum ofthe areas of the first segment 75A, the second segment 75B, the thirdsegment 75C, and the fourth segment 75D can be the same as the entirearea of the device region 730. In the illustrative example, the firstsegment 75A, the second segment 75B, the third segment 75C, and thefourth segment 75D may be arranged from one side to another along thesecond horizontal direction hd2′ and each extend in the first horizontaldirection hd1′ (i.e., have their longest horizontal dimension along thefirst horizontal direction).

In one embodiment, a focused ion beam (FIB) apparatus can be used toscan a focused ion beam along the first horizontal direction hd1′ in oneof the regions (e.g., segments) of the ferroelectric gate dielectriclayer 750L, such as the first segment 75A. The focused ion beam has asufficiently small first diameter at the point of impact on theferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L, such that only the firstsegment 75A is irradiated with the ion beam. For example, the diametermay be 10 nm to 20 nm wide at the point of impact, and the first segment75A may have a width in the second horizontal direction hd2′ of 10 nm to20 nm. The first segment 75A has a substantially the same width as thediameter of the focused ion beam at the point of impact. A substantiallythe same width as used herein includes a width that is exactly the sameas or within 10% of the focused ion beam diameter at the point ofimpact.

The focused ion beam has first ion dose, first beam energy and firstbeam dwell time. The dwell time comprises the time that the beamcontacts a given unit area. The beam may be scanned along the firsthorizontal direction one or more times in the first segment. Thus, thedwell time is a function of at least the beam scanning speed and thenumber of passes (i.e., scans) in the segment. The energy of the focusedion beam may be in a range from 1 keV to 300 keV, such as from 5 keV to50 keV, although lesser and greater ion beam energies can also beemployed. The dose of the focused ion beam may be in a range from1.0×10¹² atoms/cm² to 1.0×10¹⁵ atoms/cm², although lesser and greaterdoses can also be employed. The atomic species of the ion beam may beany element that may be employed in a focused ion beam. For example, theatomic species of the ions in the focused ion beam may include, and/ormay consist essentially of, helium or gallium.

The ions that impinge on the segment 75A of the ferroelectric gatedielectric layer 750L induce structural damage therein. Specifically,the focused ion beam irradiation processes results in at least one of afirst density of broken bonds in the ferroelectric gate dielectric layersegment, a first density of displaced atoms in a crystal lattice of theferroelectric gate dielectric layer segment, and/or a first density ofgallium or helium atoms implanted into (i.e., implanted ionconcentration) the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer segment.

Without wishing to be bound by a particular theory, it is believed thatthe broken bonds block domain walls in the scanned ferroelectric gatedielectric layer segment, which requires a higher applied voltage toswitch the polarization state of the segment. The percentage shift inthe applied voltage (e.g., coercive electrical field) depends on thedegree of structural damage (i.e., density of broken bonds) in theferroelectric material of the damaged segment.

The displaced atoms are displaced from their equilibrium positions tometastable positions in the crystal lattice that effectively retardchange in the electrical dipole moment within the ferroelectricmaterial. In other words, the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750Lsegment with displaced atoms does not lose its ferroelectric property,but the displacement of one or more atoms from the normal positionwithin a unit cell structure of the crystal lattice retards switching ofthe direction of the electrical dipole moment by requiring buildup ofmore energy for switching of the direction of the electrical dipolemoment. Thus, the hysteresis curve of the ferroelectric gate dielectriclayer segment is modified from the hysteresis curve of the undamagedsegment by increasing the magnitude of the applied voltage (e.g.,coercive electrical field) that is needed to switch the direction ofpolarization of the segment. The percentage shift in the applied voltage(e.g., coercive electrical field) depends on the degree of structuraldamage (i.e., density of displaced atoms) in the ferroelectric materialof the damaged segment.

Likewise, implantation of the helium or gallium atoms of the focused ionbeam into the segment causes a disruption to the crystal lattice of thesegment containing the helium or gallium atoms. This disruption causesan increase in the applied voltage (e.g., coercive electrical field)required to switch the polarization direction of the implanted segment.The percentage shift in the applied voltage (e.g., coercive electricalfield) depends at least in part on the concentration of implanted heliumor gallium ions (i.e., density of implanted atoms) in the ferroelectricmaterial of the damaged segment.

Referring to FIGS. 18A and 18B, a second focused ion beam is scannedover the second segment 75B of the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer750L. The second focused ion beam has a second beam diameter at thepoint of impact on layer 750L, a second ion dose, a second beam energyand second beam dwell time.

In one embodiment, the second focused ion beam diameter at the point ofimpact on layer 750L is substantially the same as the width of thesecond segment 75B and is scanned only over the second segment 75B. Inthis embodiment, at least one of the second ion dose, the second beamenergy, and/or the second beam dwell time is less than the respectivefirst ion dose, first beam energy, and/or first beam dwell time.

In another embodiment, the second focused ion beam diameter at the pointof impact on layer 750L is substantially the same as the width of thesum of the first segment 75A and the second segment 75B in the secondhorizontal direction hd2′. In this embodiment, the second focused ionbeam is scanned over the first segment 75A and the second segment 75B atthe same time. In this embodiment, the second ion dose, the second beamenergy and/or the second beam dwell time may be the same as therespective first ion dose, second beam energy and/or first beam dwelltime. The first segment 75A is scanned twice (i.e., by the first andsecond ion beams) while the second segment 75B is scanned once (i.e.,only by the second ion beam).

In both of these embodiments, the first segment 75A has a higher densityof structural defects than the second segment 75B. In other words, thefirst segment 75A has a higher density of broken bonds in theferroelectric gate dielectric layer, a higher density of displaced atomsin a crystal lattice of the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer, and/ora higher density of gallium or helium atoms, than the second segment75B.

Referring to FIGS. 19A and 19B, a third focused ion beam is scanned overthe third segment 75C of the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L.The third focused ion beam has a third beam diameter at the point ofimpact on layer 750L, a third ion dose, a third beam energy and thirdbeam dwell time.

In one embodiment, the third focused ion beam diameter at the point ofimpact on layer 750L is substantially the same as the width of the thirdsegment 75C and is scanned only over the third segment 75C. In thisembodiment, at least one of the third ion dose, the third beam energy,and/or the third beam dwell time is less than the respective first orsecond ion dose, first or second beam energy, and/or first or secondbeam dwell time.

In another embodiment, the third focused ion beam diameter at the pointof impact on layer 750L is substantially the same as the width of thesum of the first segment 75A, the second segment 75B, and the thirdsegment 75C in the second horizontal direction hd2′. In this embodiment,the third focused ion beam is scanned over the first segment 75A, thesecond segment 75B and the third segment 75C at the same time. In thisembodiment, the third ion dose, the third beam energy and/or the thirdbeam dwell time may be the same as the respective first ion dose, secondbeam energy and/or first beam dwell time. The first segment 75A isscanned three times (i.e., by the first, second and third ions beams),the second segment 75B is scanned twice (i.e., by the second and thirdion beams) while the third segment 75C is scanned once (i.e., only bythe third ion beam).

In both of these embodiments, the first segment 75A has a higher densityof structural defects than the second segment 75B, and the secondsegment 75B has a higher density of structural defects than the thirdsegment 75C. In other words, the first and second segments 75A and 75Bhave a higher density of broken bonds in the ferroelectric gatedielectric layer, a higher density of displaced atoms in a crystallattice of the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer, and/or a higherdensity of gallium or helium atoms, than the third segment 75C.

The fourth segment 75D may remain unscanned by any focused ion beam.Thus, the fourth segment has the lowest density of structural defects ofany segment. In other words, the fourth segment 75D has a lower densityof structural defects noted above than the first, second or thirdsegments.

While four segments (75A, 75B, 75C, 75D) and three ion beams aredescribed above, any number of two or more segments with differentdensity of structural defects may be used. Furthermore, any suitablenumber of focused ions beams may be used to form the different densityof structural defects in the respective segments. Finally, while afocused ion beam was described above, any other suitable method offorming structural defects in the segments may be used instead.

The implanted gallium or helium ions may pass through the ferroelectricgate dielectric layer 750L, may remain in the ferroelectric gatedielectric layer 750L and/or may be volatilized (for example, in casehelium atoms are implanted). The various segments (75A, 75B, 75C, 75D)of the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L can have a same materialcomposition if they have the same helium or gallium concentration, orthey may have a different composition if they have a different helium orgallium concentration. In one embodiment, the structural defectdensities (e.g., density of broken bonds, displaced atoms and/orimplanted atoms) in the various segments (75A, 75B, 75C, 75D) of theferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L can be in a range from5.0×10¹⁶/cm³ to 5.0×10²¹/cm³, such as from 1.0×10¹⁸/cm³ to 2.5×10²¹/cm³,although lesser and greater defect densities can also be employed. Theaverage displacement distance of displaced atoms (which provide thestructural defects) can be in a range from 0.01 nm to 0.1 nm, althoughlesser and greater average displacement distances can also be employed.

Referring to FIGS. 20A-20D, hysteresis curves for the electricalpolarization P of different segments of the ferroelectric gatedielectric layer 750L are schematically illustrated as a function ofexternal electrical field E (which is a function of the appliedvoltage). FIG. 20A corresponds to the hysteresis curve for the firstsegment 75A of the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L in FIGS. 19Aand 19B. FIG. 20B corresponds to the hysteresis curve for the secondsegment 75B of the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L in FIGS. 19Aand 19B. FIG. 20C corresponds to the hysteresis curve for the thirdsegment 75C of the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L in FIGS. 19Aand 19B. FIG. 20D corresponds to the hysteresis curve for the fourthsegment 75D of the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L in FIGS. 19Aand 19B, which can be the same as the hysteresis curve of the materialof the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L as formed at theprocessing steps of FIGS. 16A and 16B prior to any focused ion beamscans. Generally, the greater the density of structural defects in arespective segment of the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L, thehigher the coercive field for the respective segment of theferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L.

Referring to FIGS. 21A and 21B, further processing steps can beperformed on the structure of FIGS. 19A and 19B to form a gateelectrode. At least one gate electrode material layer can besubsequently deposited over the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer750L. The at least one gate electrode material layer includes at leastone conductive material. For example, the at least one gate electrodematerial layer can include at least one of a metal, an intermetallicalloy, a metal-semiconductor alloy, a conductive metal oxide, aconductive metal nitride, a conductive metal carbide, and a dopedsemiconductor material including p-type dopants or n-type dopants at anaverage atomic concentration in a range from 5.0×10¹⁹/cm³ to2.0×10²¹/cm³. The at least one gate electrode material layer can becomposed of a single conductive material or a stack of multipleconductive materials. The bottommost material within the at least onegate electrode material layer can be selected to provide a suitable workfunction for the gate electrodes to be subsequently formed by patterningthe at least one gate electrode material layer. The at least one gateelectrode material layer can be formed by chemical vapor deposition,physical vapor deposition, vacuum evaporation, and/or atomic layerdeposition. The thickness of the at least one gate electrode materiallayer can be in a range from 50 nm to 300 nm, although lesser andgreater thicknesses can also be employed.

A gate cap dielectric layer can be optionally formed over the gateelectrode material layer. The gate cap dielectric layer includes adiffusion barrier material such as silicon nitride. The thickness of thegate cap dielectric layer can be in a range from 20 nm to 60 nm,although lesser and greater thicknesses can also be employed.

A photoresist layer (not shown) can be applied over the gate capdielectric layer, and can be lithographically patterned to form linepatterns that extend over a respective one of the device regions. Ananisotropic etch process (such as a reaction ion etch process) can beperformed to transfer the pattern in the photoresist layer through thelayer stack of the gate cap dielectric layer and the at least one gateelectrode material layer, and optionally through the ferroelectric gatedielectric layer 750L. The ferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L orthe semiconductor material layer 710 may be employed as etch stopstructures. Each patterned portion of the gate cap dielectric layercomprises a gate cap dielectric (e.g., silicon oxide or nitride) 758,and each patterned portion of the at least one gate electrode materiallayer comprise a gate electrode (752, 754). In one embodiment, each gateelectrode (752, 754) may include a first gate electrode portion 752including a first gate electrode material (e.g., metal) and a secondgate electrode portion 754 including a second gate electrode material(e.g., polysilicon). In one embodiment, each gate electrode (752, 754)can overlie each of the plurality of ferroelectric gate dielectricportions (i.e., segments 75A, 75B, 75C, 75D) of the ferroelectric gatedielectric layer 750L.

An extension ion implantation process can be performed to implantdopants of a second conductivity type into unmasked surface portions ofthe semiconductor material layer 710. The second conductivity type isthe opposite of the first conductivity type. For example, if the firstconductivity type is p-type, the second conductivity type is n-type, andvice versa. The implanted surface portions of the semiconductor materiallayer 710 are converted into doped semiconductor regions having a dopingof the second conductivity type. A source extension region 731 and adrain extension region 733 (also referred to as LDD regions) can beformed within each device region for forming a field effect transistorby conversion of the surface portions of the semiconductor materiallayer 710 into doped semiconductor material portions having a doping ofthe second conductivity type. The average atomic concentration ofdopants of the second conductivity type in the source extension regions731 and the drain extension regions 733 can be in a range from1.0×10¹⁷/cm³ to 1.0×10²⁰/cm³, although lesser and greater dopantconcentrations can also be employed. The depth of the source extensionregions 731 and the drain extension regions 733 can be in a range from10 nm to 100 nm, although lesser and greater depths can also beemployed. Each surface portion of the semiconductor material layer 710that underlies a gate electrode (752, 754) and is located between aneighboring pair of a source extension region 731 and a drain extensionregion 733 comprises a semiconductor channel 35. Each semiconductorchannel 35 extends between a source extension region 731 and a drainextension region 733, and has a doping of the first conductivity type.Optionally, a halo implantation can be performed to implant dopants ofthe first conductivity type into regions that underlie the gateelectrodes (752, 754).

Referring to FIGS. 22A and 22B, at least one dielectric material such assilicon nitride and/or silicon oxide can be conformally deposited overthe gate cap dielectrics 758, the source extension regions 731, thedrain extension regions 733, and the shallow trench isolation structures720. The at least one dielectric material can be anisotropic etched (forexample, by a reactive ion sidewall spacer etch process) to removehorizontal portions. Each remaining vertical portion that laterallysurrounds a respective stack of a gate electrode (752, 754) and a gatecap dielectric 758 comprises a gate spacer (i.e., sidewall spacer) 756,which includes the at least one dielectric material. While only a singlegate spacer 756 is illustrated in FIGS. 22A and 22B, embodiments areexpressly contemplated herein in which multiple gate spacers are formedaround each stack of a gate electrode (752, 754) and a gate capdielectric 758 by sequentially depositing and anisotropically etchingmultiple dielectric material layers.

The anisotropic etch process may also etch unmasked portions of theferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L. Each remaining patternedportion of the ferroelectric gate dielectric layer 750L comprises aferroelectric gate dielectric 750. In this case, sidewalls of eachferroelectric gate dielectric 750 may be vertically coincident withouter sidewalls of a respective one of the gate spacers 756. In oneembodiment, a gate spacer 756 can laterally surround a respective stackof a gate electrode (752, 754) and a gate cap dielectric 758. The widthof each gate spacer 756 at the base portion (i.e., the lateral distancebetween an inner sidewall and an outer sidewall) can be in a range from20 nm to 100 nm, although lesser and greater widths can also beemployed. Each contiguous assembly of a ferroelectric gate dielectric750, a gate electrode (752, 754), an optional gate cap dielectric 758,and an optional gate spacer 756 comprises a gate stack structure (750,752, 754, 758, 756).

Dopants of the second conductivity type can be implanted into unmaskedportions of the source extension regions 731, the drain extensionregions 733, and underlying regions of the semiconductor material layer710. Implanted portions of the source extension regions 731, the drainextension regions 733, and the semiconductor material layer 710 formdeep source regions 732 and deep drain regions 734. The average atomicconcentration of dopants of the second conductivity type in the deepsource regions 732 and the deep drain regions 734 can be in a range from5.0×10¹⁸/cm³ to 2.0×10²¹/cm³, although lesser and greater dopantconcentrations can also be employed. The average atomic concentration ofdopants of the second conductivity type in the deep source regions 732and the deep drain regions 734 is higher than the average atomicconcentration of dopants of the second conductivity type in theremaining portions of the source extension regions 731 and the drainextension regions 733. The depth of the deep source regions 732 and thedeep drain regions 734 can be in a range from 40 nm to 300 nm, althoughlesser and greater depths can also be employed. The depth of the deepsource regions 732 and the deep drain regions 734 can be greater thanthe depth of the remaining portions of the source extension regions 731and the drain extension regions 733. A deep source region 732 and a deepdrain region 734 can be formed within each device region 730.

Each contiguous combination of a source extension region 731 and a deepsource region 732 constitutes a source region (731, 732). Eachcontiguous combination of a drain extension region 733 and a deep drainregion 734 constitutes a drain region (733, 734). Generally, a sourceregion (731, 732) and a drain region (733, 734) can be formed in thesemiconductor material of the semiconductor material layer 710 withineach device region that is laterally surrounded by a shallow trenchisolation structure 720. A semiconductor channel 35 extends in the firsthorizontal direction hd1′ between the source region (731, 732) and thedrain region (733, 734) underneath a stack of a gate electrode (752,754) and a gate cap dielectric 758. Generally, a source region (731,732) and a drain region (733, 734) can be formed within, or on, thesemiconductor material layer 710. The source region (731, 732) and thedrain region (733, 734) can be laterally spaced apart from each other bya channel region 35 in the semiconductor material layer 710.

Referring to FIGS. 23A and 23B, a dielectric material can be depositedover the gate stack structures (750, 752, 754, 758, 756), the sourceregions (731, 732), the drain regions (733, 734), and the shallow trenchisolation structures 720. The dielectric material can include aplanarizable dielectric material such as undoped silicate glass or adoped silicate glass, or a self-planarizing dielectric material such asflowable oxide (FOX). The dielectric material can be deposited by achemical vapor deposition process (such as a plasma-enhanced chemicalvapor deposition process) or by spin coating. The top surface of thedielectric material can be planarized during, or after, the depositionprocess. A dielectric material layer having a planar (i.e., horizontal)top surface is formed, through which contact via structures aresubsequently formed. As such, the dielectric material layer is hereinreferred to as a contact-level dielectric layer 770. The top surface ofthe contact-level dielectric layer 770 can be planar, and can be locatedabove the top surface of the gate cap dielectrics 758. The verticaldistance between the top surface of the contact-level dielectric layer770 and the top surfaces of the gate cap dielectrics 758 can be in arange from 30 nm to 7400 nm, although lesser and greater thicknesses canalso be employed.

A photoresist layer (not shown) can be applied over the contact-leveldielectric layer 770, and can be lithographically patterned to formdiscrete openings therethrough. The openings in the photoresist layercan be formed over the source regions (731, 732), the drain regions(733, 734), and the gate electrodes (752, 754). An anisotropic etchprocess can be performed to form contact via cavities through thecontact-level dielectric layer 770. The contact via cavities includesource contact via cavities that extend from the top surface of thecontact-level dielectric layer 770 to a top surface of a respective oneof the source regions (731, 732), drain contact via cavities that extendfrom the top surface of the contact-level dielectric layer 770 to a topsurface of a respective one of the drain regions (733, 734), and gatecontact via cavities that extend from the top surface of thecontact-level dielectric layer 770 to a top surface of a respective oneof the gate electrodes (752, 754).

A metal that can form a metal-semiconductor alloy can be deposited intothe contact via cavities by a conformal or non-conformal depositionmethod. If the semiconductor material layer 710 comprises, and/orconsists essentially of, doped silicon, the metal can be a material thatcan form a metal silicide. For example, the metal can include nickel,titanium, tungsten, molybdenum, platinum, or another metal that forms ametal silicide. An anneal process is performed at an elevatedtemperature to induce formation of a metal silicide material. Theelevated temperature can be in a range from 500 degrees Celsius to 750degrees Celsius. Unreacted portions of the metal can be removed by a wetetch process that etches the metal selective to the metal silicidematerial. Remaining portions of the metal silicide material includesource-side metal-semiconductor alloy regions 742 contacting arespective source region (731, 732), drain-side metal-semiconductoralloy regions 744 contacting a respective drain region (733, 734), andgate-side metal-semiconductor alloy regions 745 contacting a respectivegate electrode 754 (in case the topmost material of the gate electrodes(752, 754) prior to the anneal process includes silicon).

A metallic liner including diffusion barrier material can be depositedat peripheral portions of the remaining volumes of the contact viacavities. The metallic liner includes a conducive metallic nitridematerial (such as TiN, TaN, or WN) and/or a metallic carbide material(such as TiC, TaC, or WC). The thickness of the metallic liner can be ina range from 3 nm to 15 nm, although lesser and greater thicknesses canalso be employed.

A metallic fill material such as Cu, W, Mo, Co, Ru, and/or anotherelemental metal or an intermetallic alloy can be deposited in remainingvolumes of the contact via cavities. Portions of the metallic fillmaterial and the metallic liner located above the horizontal planeincluding the top surface of the contact-level dielectric layer 770 canbe removed by a planarization process. Each contiguous combination of aremaining portion of the metallic fill material and the metallic linerthat fills a respective one of the contact via cavities constitutes acontact via structure (782, 784, 785). The contact via structures (782,784, 785) include source contact via structures 782 contacting arespective source-side metal-semiconductor alloy region 742, draincontact via structures 784 contacting a respective drain-sidemetal-semiconductor alloy region 744, and gate contact via structures785 contacting a respective gate-side metal-semiconductor alloy region745 or a respective gate electrode 754 (in case gate-sidemetal-semiconductor alloy regions 745 are not formed). Each sourcecontact via structure 782 includes a source-side metallic liner 782L anda source-side metallic fill material portion 782F. Each drain contactvia structure 784 includes a drain-side metallic liner 784L and adrain-side metallic fill material portion 784F. Each gate contact viastructure 785 includes a gate-side metallic liner 785L and a gate-sidemetallic fill material portion 785F. A field effect transistor 800having multiple turn on voltages for the various segments (75A, 75B,75C, 75D) of the ferroelectric gate dielectric 750 is provided.

Referring to FIG. 24, an exemplary channel conductance for the fieldeffect transistor 800 of the fifth embodiment of the present disclosureis illustrated. The different coercive fields of the segments (75A, 75B,75C, 75D) of the ferroelectric gate dielectric 750 induce multipleturn-on voltages for the different portions of the channel region 35that underlies a respective one of the different segments (75A, 75B,75C, 75D) of the ferroelectric gate dielectric 750. In other words, eachportion of the channel region 35 that underlies a respective segment(75A, 75B, 75C, 75D) of the ferroelectric gate dielectric 750 has arespective turn-on voltage that is different from other turn on voltage.In the illustrated example of FIG. 24, the first conductivity type canbe p-type and the minority charge carrier in the channel region 35 canbe electrons.

If the transistor 800 is a ferroelectric memory device (i.e., memorytransistor), then a ferroelectric memory array may be provided, whichcan include an array of the ferroelectric memory devices 800 illustratedin FIGS. 23A and 23B. The array may comprise a NOR type array. Eachferroelectric memory device (i.e., transistor) 800 may comprise amultilevel memory cell of the array.

The ferroelectric gate dielectric 750 of each device (i.e., transistor800) can be programmed such that the electrical dipole moment within theferroelectric gate dielectric 750 points upward so that electrons (i.e.,the minority charge carriers) are repelled from the channel region 35prior to application of the gate voltage. As the gate voltage increases,the electrical dipole moment of a region of the ferroelectric gatedielectric 750 that has the lowest coercive field (such as the fourthsegment 75D) can flip at a first turn-on voltage, and the channelconductance can increase stepwise with an accompanying increase in thesource-drain current. As the gate voltage increases further, theelectrical dipole moment of another region of the ferroelectric gatedielectric 750 that has the second lowest coercive field (such as thethird segment 75C) can flip at a second turn-on voltage, and the channelconductance can increase stepwise with an accompanying increase in thesource-drain current. As the gate voltage increases further, theelectrical dipole moment of yet another region of the ferroelectric gatedielectric 750 that has the next high coercive field (such as the secondsegment 75B) can flip at a third turn-on voltage, and the channelconductance can increase stepwise with an accompanying increase in thesource-drain current. As the gate voltage increases even further, theelectrical dipole moment of the region of the ferroelectric gatedielectric 750 that has the highest coercive field (such as the firstsegment 75A) can flip at a last (such as fourth) turn-on voltage, andthe channel conductance can increase stepwise with an accompanyingincrease in the source-drain current.

The threshold voltage of the field effect transistor 800 can be definedas the lowest turn-on voltage of the multiple turn-on voltages for thedifferent portions of the channel region 35 that underlie a respectiveportion (i.e., segment) of the ferroelectric gate dielectric 750. Forexample, the threshold voltage of the field effect transistor 800 can bethe turn-on voltage for the portion of the channel region 35 thatunderlies the fourth segment 75D of the ferroelectric gate dielectric750. Generally, the conductance of the channel region 35 under a gatebias voltage that is greater than the threshold voltage of the fieldeffect transistor (such as a voltage that is 0.1 V higher than thethreshold voltage) can be a function of hysteresis of a voltage appliedto the gate electrode (752, 754), and can include at least two differentconductance values.

Referring to FIG. 25, in another embodiment, an interconnected networkof transistors 800 is illustrated. Each of the transistors 800 is arespective field effect transistor 800 illustrated in FIGS. 23A and 23B.The transistors may be connected in a synaptic connection configurationin which output nodes of one group of transistors are connected to arespective set of multiple input nodes of another group of ferroelectricmemory devices. The average number of connections per output node ofeach transistor may be at least three, and may be four or more. Theconnections within the synaptic connection configurations may beconfined within physical proximity of each transistor. For example, theelectrical connection may be limited up to second, third or fourthnearest neighbor transistor, or any other predetermined level ofphysical proximity. Such synaptic connection configuration can beadvantageously employed to provide a computing device in which multiplepossibilities are simultaneously calculated, and probabilistic answersto a given question are provided. The conductance of each path canincrease within an increase of respective control voltage in such asynaptic connection configuration.

Referring to FIGS. 15A-25 and related drawings and according to thefifth embodiment of the present disclosure, a ferroelectric device 800comprises a semiconductor channel region 35, a gate electrode (752,754), and a ferroelectric gate dielectric 750 located between thechannel region and the gate electrode, and including a plurality offerroelectric gate dielectric portions (75A-75D) having differentstructural defect densities.

In one embodiment, the device 800 is a transistor further comprising asource region (731, 732) and a drain region (733, 734), where thechannel region 35 is located between the source region and the drainregion. In one embodiment, the plurality of ferroelectric gatedielectric portions (75A-75D) have the same thickness. In oneembodiment, each of the plurality of ferroelectric gate dielectricportions (75A-75D) comprises a ferroelectric dielectric transition metaloxide material (such as hafnium oxide doped with Zr, Al or Si, or any ofthe other ferroelectric materials described above). In one embodiment,the channel region 35 comprises a silicon (e.g., polysilicon or singlecrystal silicon) channel region, a metal oxide (e.g., ZnO) semiconductorchannel region, an organic semiconductor channel region or atwo-dimensional metal dichalcogenide (e.g., MoS₂) semiconductor channelregion.

In one embodiment, each boundary between a neighboring pair offerroelectric gate dielectric portions (e.g., a boundary betweenadjacent segments 75A and 75B, etc.) of the plurality of ferroelectricgate dielectric portions extends between the gate electrode (752, 754)and the channel region 35 in the first horizontal direction hd1′ and isparallel to a straight line connecting a geometrical center of thesource region (731, 732) to a geometrical center of the drain region(733, 734). In one embodiment, the plurality of ferroelectric gatedielectric portions (75A-75D) comprises three or more ferroelectric gatedielectric portions. The structural defect density may differ by atleast 10%, such as by 20% to 200% between different portions (e.g.,segments 75A-75D). For example, the defect density in the first segment75A may be at least 10% higher than in the second segment 75B, etc. Inone embodiment, the structural defect densities are in a range from5.0×10¹⁶/cm³ to 5.0×10²¹/cm³.

In one embodiment, the different structural defect densities comprise adifferent density of broken bonds in the different ferroelectric gatedielectric portions. In another embodiment, the different structuraldefect densities comprise a different density of displaced atoms in acrystal lattice in the different ferroelectric gate dielectric portions.In another embodiment, the different structural defect densitiescomprise a different density of gallium or helium atoms in the differentferroelectric gate dielectric portions. In one embodiment, theferroelectric gate dielectric 750 contacts the channel region 35, anddifferent portions of the channel region 35 which contact the respectivedifferent ferroelectric gate dielectric portions 75A-75D have differentconductance values.

In one embodiment, a ferroelectric memory array comprises a plurality ofthe ferroelectric devices 80 described above. In another embodimentshown in FIG. 25, an interconnected network of the ferroelectric devicesdescribed above are connected in a synaptic connection configuration inwhich a conductance of each path increases with an increase of arespective control voltage.

The various embodiments of the present disclosure provide variousferroelectric semiconductor devices, which may be employed as memory,logic or sensor devices. The configurations of the devices of thepresent disclosure can provide various advantages, which can include,but are not limited to, multiple turn-on voltages and/or multiple memorystates (which comprise different polarization states of multiplesegments of a ferroelectric gate dielectric 750).

Although the foregoing refers to particular preferred embodiments, itwill be understood that the disclosure is not so limited. It will occurto those of ordinary skill in the art that various modifications may bemade to the disclosed embodiments and that such modifications areintended to be within the scope of the disclosure. Where an embodimentemploying a particular structure and/or configuration is illustrated inthe present disclosure, it is understood that the present disclosure maybe practiced with any other compatible structures and/or configurationsthat are functionally equivalent provided that such substitutions arenot explicitly forbidden or otherwise known to be impossible to one ofordinary skill in the art. All of the publications, patent applicationsand patents cited herein are incorporated herein by reference in theirentirety.

What is claimed is:
 1. A ferroelectric device, comprising: asemiconductor channel region; a gate electrode; and a ferroelectric gatedielectric located between the channel region and the gate electrode,and including a plurality of ferroelectric gate dielectric portionshaving different structural defect densities.
 2. The ferroelectricdevice of claim 1, further comprising a source region and a drainregion, wherein the channel region is located between the source regionand the drain region.
 3. The ferroelectric device of claim 2, whereinthe plurality of ferroelectric gate dielectric portions have the samethickness.
 4. The ferroelectric device of claim 3, wherein each of theplurality of ferroelectric gate dielectric portions comprises aferroelectric dielectric transition metal oxide material selected fromhafnium oxide containing at least one dopant selected from Al, Zr, andSi and having a ferroelectric non-centrosymmetric orthorhombic phase,zirconium oxide, hafnium-zirconium oxide, barium titanate, colemanite,bismuth titanate, europium barium titanate, ferroelectric polymer,germanium telluride, langbeinite, lead scandium tantalate, leadtitanate, lead zirconate titanate, lithium niobate, LaAlO₃,polyvinylidene fluoride, potassium niobate, potassium sodium tartrate,potassium titanyl phosphate, sodium bismuth titanate, lithium tantalate,lead lanthanum titanate, lead lanthanum zirconate titanate, ammoniumdihydrogen phosphate, or potassium dihydrogen phosphate.
 5. Theferroelectric device of claim 4, wherein the channel region comprises asilicon channel region, a metal oxide semiconductor channel region, anorganic semiconductor channel region or a two-dimensional metaldichalcogenide semiconductor channel region.
 6. The ferroelectric deviceof claim 2, wherein each boundary between a neighboring pair offerroelectric gate dielectric portions of the plurality of ferroelectricgate dielectric portions extends between the gate electrode and thechannel region and is parallel to a straight line connecting ageometrical center of the source region to a geometrical center of thedrain region.
 7. The ferroelectric device of claim 1, wherein theplurality of ferroelectric gate dielectric portions comprises three ormore ferroelectric gate dielectric portions.
 8. The ferroelectric deviceof claim 1, wherein structural defect densities are in a range from5.0×10¹⁶/cm³ to 5.0×10²¹/cm³.
 9. The ferroelectric device of claim 1,wherein the different structural defect densities comprise a differentdensity of broken bonds in the different ferroelectric gate dielectricportions.
 10. The ferroelectric device of claim 1, wherein the differentstructural defect densities comprise a different density of displacedatoms in a crystal lattice in the different ferroelectric gatedielectric portions.
 11. The ferroelectric device of claim 1, whereinthe different structural defect densities comprise a different densityof gallium or helium atoms implanted into the different ferroelectricgate dielectric portions.
 12. The ferroelectric device of claim 1,wherein the ferroelectric gate dielectric contacts the channel region,and wherein different portions of the channel region which contact therespective different ferroelectric gate dielectric portions havedifferent conductance values.
 13. A ferroelectric memory arraycomprising a plurality of the ferroelectric devices of claim
 1. 14. Aninterconnected network of the ferroelectric devices, comprising aplurality of the ferroelectric devices of claim 1 that are connected ina synaptic connection configuration in which a conductance of each pathincreases with an increase of a respective control voltage.
 15. Aferroelectric device, comprising: a two-dimensional metal dichalcogenidesemiconductor channel region; a gate electrode; and a ferroelectric gatedielectric located adjacent to the channel region and including aplurality of different ferroelectric gate dielectric portions.
 16. Amethod of forming a ferroelectric device, comprising: forming a sourceregion and a drain region that are laterally spaced apart from eachother by a channel region; forming a ferroelectric gate dielectric overthe channel region; forming different structural defects in theferroelectric gate dielectric, wherein a plurality of ferroelectric gatedielectric portions have different structural defect densities; andforming a gate electrode over each of the plurality of ferroelectricgate dielectric portions.
 17. The method of claim 16, wherein formingthe ferroelectric gate dielectric comprises: forming a ferroelectricgate dielectric layer; and performing a different focused ion beamirradiation process in each of the plurality of ferroelectric gatedielectric portions to provide different structural defect densities ineach of the plurality of ferroelectric gate dielectric portions.
 18. Themethod of claim 17, wherein the different focused ion beam irradiationprocesses result in at least one of a different density of broken bondsin different ferroelectric gate dielectric portions, a different densityof displaced atoms in a crystal lattice in the different ferroelectricgate dielectric portions, or different density of gallium or heliumatoms in the different ferroelectric gate dielectric portions.
 19. Themethod of claim 18, wherein the different focused ion beam irradiationprocesses use at least one of ion dose, beam energy or beam dwell timethat are different from each other.
 20. The method of claim 16, wherein:the channel region is located between the source region and the drainregion; each boundary between a neighboring pair of ferroelectric gatedielectric portions of the plurality of ferroelectric gate dielectricportions extends between the gate electrode and the channel region andis parallel to a straight line connecting a geometrical center of thesource region to a geometrical center of the drain region; and thedifferent focused ion beam irradiation process comprise scanning afocused ion beam along the straight line.